If we return over a century to Bleuler’s 4 “A’s” of schizophrenia (ambivalence, autism, affective incongruity, and affiliation disturbances) (Bleuler, 1911) it isn’t laborious to see a spot for dissociation. Nonetheless, with extra fashionable definitions (e.g. ICD-11) dissociation doesn’t characteristic as a symptom, with the emphasis now being firmly upon constructive and unfavourable signs.
There may be proof that sufferers with psychosis and developmental trauma have worse scientific outcomes and extra extreme signs, compared to these with out (Bailey et al 2018). Trauma associated dissociation is a typical scientific consideration, nevertheless it doesn’t at the moment characteristic as a think about psychosis.
Inside the woodland we’ve got thought-about Service person experiences of dissociation (2020), Trauma and psychotic experiences: outcomes from a transnational survey (2017) and Trauma and psychotic signs: clear affiliation, however do we all know why? (2016), however the Venn diagram of psychosis, developmental trauma and dissociation has little proof base.
The weblog as we speak appears to be like at a pair of papers from Melegkovits et al from College Faculty London. A scientific overview on the expertise and position of dissociation in psychosis following developmental trauma, printed in Scientific Psychology Assessment (Melegkovits et al 2025a) and a qualitative research on the dissociative experiences in people with subclinical psychosis and a historical past of developmental trauma printed within the European Journal of Psychotraumatology (Melegkovits et al 2025b).
Sufferers with the overlap of psychosis and developmental trauma have worse scientific outcomes and extra extreme signs compared to these with out.
Strategies
The systematic overview appeared for literature in “Embase,” “MEDLINE,” and “PsychINFO” databases (with out publication date boundaries), using predetermined search terminologies.
The qualitative research concerned contributors with a historical past of developmental trauma and assembly the standards for subclinical psychosis, primarily based on the CAPE-15; recruited through social media. Semi-structured interviews have been accomplished on-line, which have been transcribed verbatim and analysed with thematic evaluation.
Goals of the systematic overview:
- Analyse the affiliation between developmental trauma and dissociation, and evaluate the prevalence and traits of dissociative occurrences amongst psychotic people with and with no historical past of developmental trauma.
- Examine the potential middleman operate of dissociation and its subtypes within the nexus between developmental trauma and psychotic experiences throughout the psychosis continuum.
Purpose of the qualitative research:
- To research the phenomenology, context, and affect of dissociative experiences in people with subclinical psychosis and a historical past of developmental trauma.
Outcomes
The systematic overview recognized 40 research inside the search standards printed between 1990 and 2024. Curiously none of those have been qualitative research. The overview concerned:
- 6,941 contributors
- 26 cross sectional research
- 10 case management research
- 4 cohort research
- 18 have been designated with a excessive danger of bias (ROB)
- 15 with a average ROB, and
- 6 as having a low ROB
Elevated ranges of developmental trauma and psychosis; small to average correlation between developmental trauma and psychotic signs.
Larger dissociation ranges in scientific psychosis teams; dissociation metrics correlated with constructive signs, though this wasn’t common.
Average to massive correlation between developmental trauma and dissociation; small to average correlation between developmental trauma and psychotic signs.
Abuse subtypes and dissociation:
- Average relationship between sexual abuse and dissociation, r = 0.32 (95 % CI: 0.23 to 0.40).
- Average correlation between emotional abuse and dissociation, r = 0.31 (95 % CI: 0.19 to 0.42).
- Small affiliation between bodily abuse and dissociation: r = 0.19 (95 % CI: 0.12 to 0.26).
- Small affiliation between bodily neglect and dissociation, r = 0.19 (95 % CI: 0.11 to 0.28)
- Small relationship between emotional neglect and dissociation, r = 0.14 (95 % CI: 0.05 to 0.24).
Dose response relationship between developmental trauma and dissociation. Each trauma severity and variety of exposures to trauma correlated with elevated dissociation.
Dissociation as a mediator between trauma and psychosis:
- Hallucinations. 5 research offered proof for mediation of dissociation within the prevalence of hallucinations (just for frequency and high quality of hallucinations).
- Delusions and paranoia: Mediation by dissociation was seen in 1/3 scientific samples and a couple of/2 normal inhabitants pattern
- Damaging signs: 3 research linked dissociation and unfavourable signs and a couple of additional research highlighted the hyperlink between developmental trauma and self-reported unfavourable signs.
Statistical mediation examines the method by which an impartial variable (on this case trauma) impacts a dependent variable (psychosis right here) by way of its affect on a 3rd variable, often known as a mediator (dissociation).
The qualitative research concerned 25 contributors from the UK and the thematic evaluation yielded the next themes:
Phenomenology of dissociation
- Depersonalisation: consciousness, possession and management of bodily expertise
- Depersonalisation: ‘ myself from the skin’
- Detachment linked to emotional numbness
- Derealisation phenomenology
- Compartmentalisation phenomenology
Context of dissociation
- As a response to trauma in childhood
- Following trauma reminders
- In response to low temper and distressing feelings
Impression of dissociation
- Extremely distressing and threatening expertise
- Incomprehensible and complicated
Dissociation and psychotic-like phenomena
- Disconnection…contributing to emotions of distrust and paranoia.
- Modifications in form, brightness and color of objects, but in addition to tactile anomalous experiences akin to hallucinations
- Dissociation as a response to the misery induced by hallucinations
Dissociation might act as a mediator between developmental trauma and psychosis.
Conclusions
The authors concluded that:
We recognized a average affiliation between developmental trauma and dissociation in psychosis sufferers, and proof suggesting that dissociation might mediate the hyperlink between developmental trauma and psychosis.
Each research spotlight the complexity of the interaction between dissociative experiences, developmental trauma and psychosis and point out there could also be a particular mediating impact by dissociation on this group.
Nonetheless, being the primary to particularly look into this space it’s clear that additional analysis is required to extend our understanding of how dissociation and misery can hyperlink to different elements of psychopathology.
Strengths and limitations
Systematic overview
The standard of any systematic overview will all the time be decided by what analysis has gone earlier than it – each the variety of papers and the standard of them. As that is an rising space of research there can be some pure limitations. Nonetheless, the processes concerned have been of a superb commonplace.
The preliminary research query was fairly broad however essentially so to seize the related papers. The paper identification course of was strong with main databases used and a PRISMA diagram included within the paper. All forms of research have been concerned (in any other case I think there would have been only a few papers), nevertheless this does then pose a problem in relation to articulating the overview itself – primarily selecting a story course of. Danger of bias was accomplished and reported for all papers utilizing standardised instruments relying on the research sort. Of the 40 included research simply six had a low danger of bias, whereas 18 have been categorised as excessive danger and 15 as average.
For the meta-analysis, the variety of papers in relation to subtypes of developmental trauma grew to become a lot smaller, which in itself reduces the robustness of the outcomes and the truth that the research have been predominantly cross-sectional removes the flexibility to indicate causal attributes, however it’s a good begin.
The scientific research targeted on an older demographic and had a decrease proportion of females (Imply = 33.26, SD = 10.32; 41 % feminine) in comparison with research on the overall inhabitants (Imply = 25.25, SD = 7.27; 76.8 % feminine) which can properly affect the validity of the outcomes and generalisability.
Qualitative research
25 contributors is an effective variety of contributors for a qualitative research and the analysis goals have been clear and focussed. The research course of itself was standardised, semi structured and the inclusion and exclusion standards have been clear.
The choice course of has the potential to create some bias: recruiting purely from social media will create choice bias and this does appear to have been the case given the gender imbalance. Self-report scales for assessing the inclusion and exclusion standards have fallibility and will have led to variation inside the chosen group.
Inside the means of score whether or not individuals have been in danger for psychosis they used the CAARMS software and this does have descriptions of dissociative experiences which the authors do mirror might have led to some inductive bias. Nonetheless different descriptions have been additionally collated.
The demographics of the inhabitants used have been primarily younger, feminine contributors of white ethnicity and of upper schooling background, limiting the broader generalisability of the outcomes. This may increasingly have been on account of the sampling technique, however future analysis ought to search to discover these experiences in a broader and extra consultant demographic.
Given the clear deal with phenomenology within the qualitative research, it’s laborious to grasp why a thematic evaluation was adopted. Interpretative Phenomenological Evaluation (IPA) is a qualitative analysis methodology rooted in phenomenology and hermeneutics that goals to discover how individuals make sense of their experiences of a selected phenomenon, which has been used previously to discover this subject. Whereas it’s a time consuming and exacting type of evaluation, it might have allowed for a deeper exploration of the lived expertise of dissociation.
If the analysis staff had opted to make use of Interpretative Phenomenological Evaluation, it might have allowed for a deeper exploration of the lived expertise of dissociation.
Implications for follow
Clinicians are sometimes guided by diagnostic frameworks in relation to symptom correlation and the broader formulation of the affected person. With the extra fashionable diagnostic classes for psychotic problems specializing in the constructive and unfavourable signs, dissociation (and at instances developmental trauma) could be ignored.
The important thing take residence message from this weblog is that clinicians ought to have interaction their scientific curiosity and probe for signs of dissociation in all sufferers with psychosis particularly if they’ve a historical past of developmental trauma.
There’s a complexity to articulating dissociative signs, nevertheless the themes from the qualitative research do begin to create a pure language to make use of, which can be clinically helpful. Via the method of scripting this weblog, I’ve already amended my very own scientific follow and have shared it with the employees I supervise: none of whom would essentially have thought-about screening for dissociation in sufferers with psychosis.
With out a change in scientific follow, the therapy plan for the person will not be specializing in all of the aetiological elements, which in flip may result in poorer outcomes and all the subsequent ramifications related to this.
Clinicians ought to have interaction their scientific curiosity and probe for signs of dissociation in all sufferers with psychosis, particularly if they’ve a historical past of developmental trauma.
Just a little music to hearken to while we mirror on this…
Assertion of pursuits
I’ve no conflicting pursuits in relation to this paper.
Hyperlinks
Major papers
Melegkovits 2025a: The expertise and position of dissociation in psychosis following developmental trauma: A scientific overview Clin Psychol Rev. 2025 Apr:117:102564. doi: 10.1016/j.cpr.2025.102564. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2025.102564
Melegkovits 2025b Dissociative experiences in people with subclinical psychosis and a historical past of developmental trauma: a qualitative research . Eur J Psychotraumatol. 2025 Dec;16(1):2472473. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2025.2472473
Different references
Bleuler, E. (1911). Dementia praecox, oder Gruppe der Schizophrenien. Deutsche Zeitschrift für Nervenheilkunde. doi.org/10.1055/s-0031-1295586
Bailey, T., Alvarez-Jimenez, M., Garcia-Sanchez, A. M., Hulbert, C., Barlow, E., & Bendall, S. (2018). Childhood trauma is related to severity of hallucinations and delusions in psychotic problems: A scientific overview and meta-analysis. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 44, 1111–1122. doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbx161
Photograph credit
If we return over a century to Bleuler’s 4 “A’s” of schizophrenia (ambivalence, autism, affective incongruity, and affiliation disturbances) (Bleuler, 1911) it isn’t laborious to see a spot for dissociation. Nonetheless, with extra fashionable definitions (e.g. ICD-11) dissociation doesn’t characteristic as a symptom, with the emphasis now being firmly upon constructive and unfavourable signs.
There may be proof that sufferers with psychosis and developmental trauma have worse scientific outcomes and extra extreme signs, compared to these with out (Bailey et al 2018). Trauma associated dissociation is a typical scientific consideration, nevertheless it doesn’t at the moment characteristic as a think about psychosis.
Inside the woodland we’ve got thought-about Service person experiences of dissociation (2020), Trauma and psychotic experiences: outcomes from a transnational survey (2017) and Trauma and psychotic signs: clear affiliation, however do we all know why? (2016), however the Venn diagram of psychosis, developmental trauma and dissociation has little proof base.
The weblog as we speak appears to be like at a pair of papers from Melegkovits et al from College Faculty London. A scientific overview on the expertise and position of dissociation in psychosis following developmental trauma, printed in Scientific Psychology Assessment (Melegkovits et al 2025a) and a qualitative research on the dissociative experiences in people with subclinical psychosis and a historical past of developmental trauma printed within the European Journal of Psychotraumatology (Melegkovits et al 2025b).
Sufferers with the overlap of psychosis and developmental trauma have worse scientific outcomes and extra extreme signs compared to these with out.
Strategies
The systematic overview appeared for literature in “Embase,” “MEDLINE,” and “PsychINFO” databases (with out publication date boundaries), using predetermined search terminologies.
The qualitative research concerned contributors with a historical past of developmental trauma and assembly the standards for subclinical psychosis, primarily based on the CAPE-15; recruited through social media. Semi-structured interviews have been accomplished on-line, which have been transcribed verbatim and analysed with thematic evaluation.
Goals of the systematic overview:
- Analyse the affiliation between developmental trauma and dissociation, and evaluate the prevalence and traits of dissociative occurrences amongst psychotic people with and with no historical past of developmental trauma.
- Examine the potential middleman operate of dissociation and its subtypes within the nexus between developmental trauma and psychotic experiences throughout the psychosis continuum.
Purpose of the qualitative research:
- To research the phenomenology, context, and affect of dissociative experiences in people with subclinical psychosis and a historical past of developmental trauma.
Outcomes
The systematic overview recognized 40 research inside the search standards printed between 1990 and 2024. Curiously none of those have been qualitative research. The overview concerned:
- 6,941 contributors
- 26 cross sectional research
- 10 case management research
- 4 cohort research
- 18 have been designated with a excessive danger of bias (ROB)
- 15 with a average ROB, and
- 6 as having a low ROB
Elevated ranges of developmental trauma and psychosis; small to average correlation between developmental trauma and psychotic signs.
Larger dissociation ranges in scientific psychosis teams; dissociation metrics correlated with constructive signs, though this wasn’t common.
Average to massive correlation between developmental trauma and dissociation; small to average correlation between developmental trauma and psychotic signs.
Abuse subtypes and dissociation:
- Average relationship between sexual abuse and dissociation, r = 0.32 (95 % CI: 0.23 to 0.40).
- Average correlation between emotional abuse and dissociation, r = 0.31 (95 % CI: 0.19 to 0.42).
- Small affiliation between bodily abuse and dissociation: r = 0.19 (95 % CI: 0.12 to 0.26).
- Small affiliation between bodily neglect and dissociation, r = 0.19 (95 % CI: 0.11 to 0.28)
- Small relationship between emotional neglect and dissociation, r = 0.14 (95 % CI: 0.05 to 0.24).
Dose response relationship between developmental trauma and dissociation. Each trauma severity and variety of exposures to trauma correlated with elevated dissociation.
Dissociation as a mediator between trauma and psychosis:
- Hallucinations. 5 research offered proof for mediation of dissociation within the prevalence of hallucinations (just for frequency and high quality of hallucinations).
- Delusions and paranoia: Mediation by dissociation was seen in 1/3 scientific samples and a couple of/2 normal inhabitants pattern
- Damaging signs: 3 research linked dissociation and unfavourable signs and a couple of additional research highlighted the hyperlink between developmental trauma and self-reported unfavourable signs.
Statistical mediation examines the method by which an impartial variable (on this case trauma) impacts a dependent variable (psychosis right here) by way of its affect on a 3rd variable, often known as a mediator (dissociation).
The qualitative research concerned 25 contributors from the UK and the thematic evaluation yielded the next themes:
Phenomenology of dissociation
- Depersonalisation: consciousness, possession and management of bodily expertise
- Depersonalisation: ‘ myself from the skin’
- Detachment linked to emotional numbness
- Derealisation phenomenology
- Compartmentalisation phenomenology
Context of dissociation
- As a response to trauma in childhood
- Following trauma reminders
- In response to low temper and distressing feelings
Impression of dissociation
- Extremely distressing and threatening expertise
- Incomprehensible and complicated
Dissociation and psychotic-like phenomena
- Disconnection…contributing to emotions of distrust and paranoia.
- Modifications in form, brightness and color of objects, but in addition to tactile anomalous experiences akin to hallucinations
- Dissociation as a response to the misery induced by hallucinations
Dissociation might act as a mediator between developmental trauma and psychosis.
Conclusions
The authors concluded that:
We recognized a average affiliation between developmental trauma and dissociation in psychosis sufferers, and proof suggesting that dissociation might mediate the hyperlink between developmental trauma and psychosis.
Each research spotlight the complexity of the interaction between dissociative experiences, developmental trauma and psychosis and point out there could also be a particular mediating impact by dissociation on this group.
Nonetheless, being the primary to particularly look into this space it’s clear that additional analysis is required to extend our understanding of how dissociation and misery can hyperlink to different elements of psychopathology.
Strengths and limitations
Systematic overview
The standard of any systematic overview will all the time be decided by what analysis has gone earlier than it – each the variety of papers and the standard of them. As that is an rising space of research there can be some pure limitations. Nonetheless, the processes concerned have been of a superb commonplace.
The preliminary research query was fairly broad however essentially so to seize the related papers. The paper identification course of was strong with main databases used and a PRISMA diagram included within the paper. All forms of research have been concerned (in any other case I think there would have been only a few papers), nevertheless this does then pose a problem in relation to articulating the overview itself – primarily selecting a story course of. Danger of bias was accomplished and reported for all papers utilizing standardised instruments relying on the research sort. Of the 40 included research simply six had a low danger of bias, whereas 18 have been categorised as excessive danger and 15 as average.
For the meta-analysis, the variety of papers in relation to subtypes of developmental trauma grew to become a lot smaller, which in itself reduces the robustness of the outcomes and the truth that the research have been predominantly cross-sectional removes the flexibility to indicate causal attributes, however it’s a good begin.
The scientific research targeted on an older demographic and had a decrease proportion of females (Imply = 33.26, SD = 10.32; 41 % feminine) in comparison with research on the overall inhabitants (Imply = 25.25, SD = 7.27; 76.8 % feminine) which can properly affect the validity of the outcomes and generalisability.
Qualitative research
25 contributors is an effective variety of contributors for a qualitative research and the analysis goals have been clear and focussed. The research course of itself was standardised, semi structured and the inclusion and exclusion standards have been clear.
The choice course of has the potential to create some bias: recruiting purely from social media will create choice bias and this does appear to have been the case given the gender imbalance. Self-report scales for assessing the inclusion and exclusion standards have fallibility and will have led to variation inside the chosen group.
Inside the means of score whether or not individuals have been in danger for psychosis they used the CAARMS software and this does have descriptions of dissociative experiences which the authors do mirror might have led to some inductive bias. Nonetheless different descriptions have been additionally collated.
The demographics of the inhabitants used have been primarily younger, feminine contributors of white ethnicity and of upper schooling background, limiting the broader generalisability of the outcomes. This may increasingly have been on account of the sampling technique, however future analysis ought to search to discover these experiences in a broader and extra consultant demographic.
Given the clear deal with phenomenology within the qualitative research, it’s laborious to grasp why a thematic evaluation was adopted. Interpretative Phenomenological Evaluation (IPA) is a qualitative analysis methodology rooted in phenomenology and hermeneutics that goals to discover how individuals make sense of their experiences of a selected phenomenon, which has been used previously to discover this subject. Whereas it’s a time consuming and exacting type of evaluation, it might have allowed for a deeper exploration of the lived expertise of dissociation.
If the analysis staff had opted to make use of Interpretative Phenomenological Evaluation, it might have allowed for a deeper exploration of the lived expertise of dissociation.
Implications for follow
Clinicians are sometimes guided by diagnostic frameworks in relation to symptom correlation and the broader formulation of the affected person. With the extra fashionable diagnostic classes for psychotic problems specializing in the constructive and unfavourable signs, dissociation (and at instances developmental trauma) could be ignored.
The important thing take residence message from this weblog is that clinicians ought to have interaction their scientific curiosity and probe for signs of dissociation in all sufferers with psychosis particularly if they’ve a historical past of developmental trauma.
There’s a complexity to articulating dissociative signs, nevertheless the themes from the qualitative research do begin to create a pure language to make use of, which can be clinically helpful. Via the method of scripting this weblog, I’ve already amended my very own scientific follow and have shared it with the employees I supervise: none of whom would essentially have thought-about screening for dissociation in sufferers with psychosis.
With out a change in scientific follow, the therapy plan for the person will not be specializing in all of the aetiological elements, which in flip may result in poorer outcomes and all the subsequent ramifications related to this.
Clinicians ought to have interaction their scientific curiosity and probe for signs of dissociation in all sufferers with psychosis, particularly if they’ve a historical past of developmental trauma.
Just a little music to hearken to while we mirror on this…
Assertion of pursuits
I’ve no conflicting pursuits in relation to this paper.
Hyperlinks
Major papers
Melegkovits 2025a: The expertise and position of dissociation in psychosis following developmental trauma: A scientific overview Clin Psychol Rev. 2025 Apr:117:102564. doi: 10.1016/j.cpr.2025.102564. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2025.102564
Melegkovits 2025b Dissociative experiences in people with subclinical psychosis and a historical past of developmental trauma: a qualitative research . Eur J Psychotraumatol. 2025 Dec;16(1):2472473. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2025.2472473
Different references
Bleuler, E. (1911). Dementia praecox, oder Gruppe der Schizophrenien. Deutsche Zeitschrift für Nervenheilkunde. doi.org/10.1055/s-0031-1295586
Bailey, T., Alvarez-Jimenez, M., Garcia-Sanchez, A. M., Hulbert, C., Barlow, E., & Bendall, S. (2018). Childhood trauma is related to severity of hallucinations and delusions in psychotic problems: A scientific overview and meta-analysis. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 44, 1111–1122. doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbx161
